Metal dilators are inserted through your vagina and used to widen the opening to the uterus. A curette (an instrument with a flat metal loop at one end) is then used to scrape the lining of the uterus.

The endometrium is the lining of your uterus (womb). Endometrial ablation is the surgical removal or destruction of this lining. There are different methods of destroying the endometrium including electricity, laser therapy or freezing. A specialist performs the operation and it is done through the vagina, so there is no need for the abdomen to be cut open. The endometrium will heal leaving scarring, which usually reduces or stops menstrual periods. In women who have very heavy periods (menorrhagia), an endometrial ablation can be done instead of a hysterectomy as it is an easier procedure than a hysterectomy and is quicker to recover from. Endometrial ablation is only performed in women who no longer wish to have children.

Fibroids are noncancerous growths or tumours on the muscular part of the uterus (womb); sometimes they are also called myomas. Fibroids may be very small (about 5mm) or can grow to be quite large (about 100mm). Many women with fibroids do not notice any symptoms and will not need treatment, whereas others may experience problems such as painful and heavy periods. Treatment includes medication to shrink the fibroids and, in some women, surgical removal.

Gynaecological cancer refers to cancer anywhere in a woman’s reproductive system or genital area. Cancers occur when the cells divide and grow in an uncontrolled way forming a lump, growth or tumour. Usually the cause of the cancer is unknown. There are a number of different treatments for gynaecological cancer and the doctor and specialist will work out which is best for each individual woman. Treatment may include surgery, chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. Ovarian Cancer The most common symptom associated with ovarian cancer is abdominal pain. In most cases the cancer is found when a doctor feels a lump in the abdomen when doing an internal (vaginal) examination. Endometrial Cancer The endometrium is the lining of the uterus (womb). When a cancerous tumour grows in the endometrium the most common symptom is bleeding. This type of cancer is a lot more common in older women, after they have gone through menopause. Cancer of the Vulva The vulva is the area of the genitalia outside a woman’s body. Cancer of this region is very rare. The most common symptoms are bleeding, itching or a burning feeling in the vulval area. Cervical Cancer The cervix is at the entrance to the uterus (womb). Typical signs of cervical cancer include bleeding between periods and after sexual intercourse. In most cases the cancer can be diagnosed by a vaginal examination.

A hysterectomy is an operation to remove your uterus (womb). Some types of hysterectomies include the removal of other organs as well, and this will depend on the reason for the operation. A hysterectomy is a treatment for many different diseases and conditions and it can be done through the vagina or through a cut in the stomach.

A speculum is inserted into your vagina, as for a cervical smear, and a long, thin tube with a tiny camera attached (hysteroscope) is placed into the vagina and moved through into the uterus. This allows the surgeon to see inside the uterus and may, in some cases, show the reason for conditions such as infertility or pelvic pain. A hysteroscope may also be used to remove fibroids or polyps or to take a biopsy (small sample of tissue) for examination in the laboratory.

This is an operation where the cervix (entrance to the uterus) is dilated and a hysteroscope (small lighted mini telescope) is inserted into the uterus through the vagina and cervix so the specialist can see the inside of the uterus. If no cancer is present, a small spoon-like instrument with a long handle, called a curette, is inserted and the lining of the uterus is scraped off and sent to the laboratory for examination. This procedure can be done under a general (you are asleep) or local (you are awake but the area being investigated is numb) anaesthetic.

When a person or couple has been unable to get pregnant after trying for a year or more. Read more about infertility on the Healthify website.

Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) is when female hormones (oestrogen by itself or with progesterone) are given to a woman with lower hormone levels, or during or after menopause when the production of oestrogen by the ovaries declines (for menopause treatment may be referred to as hormone replacement therapy (HRT)). The hormones can be taken as tablets, implants or skin patches. Different types of MHT have different risks and they’re not the same for everyone. However, for some women, short-term use of MHT (no more than 3–4 years) can provide relief from symptoms caused by having less oestrogen in their bodies, such as hot flushes and loss of bone density. The risks and benefits of MHT should be thoroughly discussed with a doctor before treatment begins.

Menopause is also called the “change of life” and is the time when your periods will become irregular and stop. This is a natural process in all women and for most it will occur between the ages of 45 and 55 years. Menopause is brought on by decreasing levels of the hormone oestrogen and this can cause a variety of symptoms, including hot flushes, night sweats, mood swings, sleeping problems, memory problems, depression and vaginal dryness. Some women do not notice any symptoms or they are very mild, whereas others experience more severe problems and should go to their doctor for advice. There are many treatments available to reduce the symptoms associated with menopause and, in some cases, lifestyle changes can also help.

Menstruation is the medical name for your monthly period. This is when blood and tissue from the lining of the uterus (womb) is shed through the vagina and out of the body. Menstruation starts at puberty and it is stimulated by hormones that make a girl’s body able to become pregnant. This usually happens anytime between the ages of 9 and 16 years. Menstruation will recur about every 28 days (the menstrual cycle), unless interrupted by pregnancy, and will stop at menopause, which occurs at about 50 years of age. There are a number of problems that can occur with menstruation ranging from mild to severe. More than half of all women will have cramps (dysmenorrhoea) during the first day or two of their period. Other problems include very heavy or long periods (menorrhagia) or no periods (amenorrhoea).

Laparoscopic: an incision (cut) is made in your navel (tummy button) and several small cuts in the abdomen (stomach). A thin telescopic instrument (laparoscope) and several small instruments are inserted into the cuts and moved through into the uterus allowing the surgeon to view the fibroids. Small fibroids can then be removed either by introducing small surgical tools to cut them away or by vaporising them with a laser or electric current. For large fibroids, an incision is made across your abdomen and the fibroids are cut out of the uterus. Hysteroscopic: a speculum is inserted into your vagina, as for a pap smear, and a long, thin tube with a tiny camera attached (hysteroscope) is placed into the vagina and moved through into the uterus. This allows the surgeon to see inside the uterus and remove the fibroids.

An oophorectomy is an operation to remove one or both ovaries. It is done for many reasons including ovarian cancer, ovarian cysts or to remove the source of the hormone oestrogen that is produced by the ovaries and can stimulate some cancers. If both ovaries are removed, your periods will stop and you will not be able to have children. Sometimes an oophorectomy is done together with a hysterectomy.

Several small incisions (cuts) are made in your abdomen (stomach) and a thin tube with a tiny camera attached (laparoscope) inserted, allowing the surgeon a view of your ovaries. Small instruments are inserted through the cuts and into the ovaries, where they remove the cysts.

An ovarian cyst is a fluid-filled sac or pouch in the ovary. In most cases, the cyst grows as a result of ovulation (when the egg is released from the ovary), and it will usually shrink over time. Sometimes, the ovarian cyst may cause pain. The best way to check for an ovarian cyst is by ultrasound examination, and the treatment will depend on how troublesome the symptoms are. Sometimes it is best to leave the cyst alone and just check it regularly with ultrasound. In other cases it may need to be removed by laparoscopic surgery.

An incision (cut) is made in your navel (tummy button) and several small cuts in the abdomen (stomach). A thin telescopic instrument (laparoscope) is inserted through your navel, allowing the surgeon a view of the pelvic floor. Small instruments are inserted into the cuts that can lift the prolapsed or sagging organs back into position and reattach them.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal disorder that can cause you to have a variety of symptoms, including no periods or irregular periods, increased hair growth on the face and body, acne (pimples) and increased bodyweight. PCOS is also one of the main causes of infertility in women. The ovaries of women with PCOS often contain many small cysts (fluid-filled sacs), but this does not seem to be the cause of the condition. For women who have not reached menopause, the most common treatment is the birth control pill, which will regulate your periods. There are also other medicines that can help control the symptoms.

Many women experience feelings of tension, anger, fatigue and depression just before and during the first days of their menstrual period. This is called premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and is probably caused by the change in hormone levels. In most women with PMS, symptoms will not be severe enough to require treatment, but some will need to discuss their symptoms with a doctor. Sometimes symptoms can be improved by avoiding some types of food, such as coffee and foods high in salt.

Laparoscopic: several small incisions (cuts) are made in your abdomen (stomach) and a thin tube with a tiny camera attached (laparoscope) inserted, allowing the surgeon a view of your fallopian tubes. Small surgical instruments are introduced through the other cuts and are used to remove part or all of the fallopian tube. Abdominal (laparotomy): an incision is made in your abdomen and part or all of the fallopian tube is removed.

If the uterus (womb) or bladder slips out of position, this is referred to as a prolapse. It is caused when the supporting muscles become weak, allowing a part of the uterus or bladder to bulge into the vagina. The most common reason that these muscles become weak is childbirth, and a uterine prolapse or bladder prolapse (also called cystocoele) is more common in women who have had a lot of babies. Symptoms include pain, heaviness in the vaginal area and a frequent need to pass urine. In mild cases, exercises may help improve the symptoms, but women with more severe prolapses may need to have surgery.

The most common vaginal infections are yeast infections (also called candidiasis or thrush), trichomoniasis, or bacterial infections (also called bacterial vaginosis). Symptoms of an infection may include irritation, itching, discharge and odour. To make a diagnosis a doctor will usually do a vaginal swab, which involves wiping a type of cotton bud gently across the infected area. The swab is then sent to the laboratory for analysis. There are many medicines that can successfully treat these infections.

A sample of tissue (biopsy) is surgically removed from a lesion (area of damaged tissue) on your vulva. If the lesion is cut out completely, the procedure is called an excision.

A caesarean section is the name of the operation done to deliver a baby through a cut in your stomach and uterus (womb). In some cases this is safer than a vaginal delivery. The surgery is performed by an obstetrician and it usually only takes a few minutes for the baby to be born. A general or epidural anaesthetic can be used. Most women will be up and about within 24 hours of the surgery.

Gestation is the length of a pregnancy from conception to birth (usually 40 weeks in humans). Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes (glucose intolerance) that occurs in some women during pregnancy. Women with gestational diabetes have a high level of glucose (or sugar) in their blood because they do not have enough of the hormone insulin to cope with the extra demands of the growing foetus (unborn baby). In most cases, gestational diabetes is managed by diet and exercise and will usually disappear after the baby is born.

Induction of labour is the process of starting labour artificially. This may be needed for many reasons, such as high blood pressure, toxaemia or if your waters have broken and you haven’t gone into labour by yourself. There are a few different methods that may help to induce labour, including an internal examination by the midwife or doctor, medication that softens the cervix (entrance to the uterus) allowing it to open, or other medicine that stimulates the uterus (womb) to contract.

In a very small number of pregnancies, the baby may not grow as well as in a normal pregnancy. This is called intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and the unborn baby will be described as being “small for gestational age” (SGA). This means that the baby is smaller than expected for the length of time that the woman has been pregnant. An unborn baby with IUGR should be carefully managed during pregnancy and delivery but will usually be healthy at birth.

Toxaemia of pregnancy or pre-eclampsia is a condition that occurs in some women during the second half of pregnancy. It is characterised by high blood pressure, swelling that doesn't go away and large amounts of protein in the urine. If left untreated it can stop the placenta, which provides nourishment to the baby, from getting enough blood and thus slows the baby’s growth. The condition can also be dangerous for the mother. In the early stages, simple measures such as bed rest may control the symptoms but, if not, it may be necessary to deliver the baby a week or two early.